1. Create examples for each of the following types of fallacies.
2. Find a book in the library or at a bookstore and locate examples of two types of fallacies listed below.
3. Find a Web site of fallacies on the Internet. Choose three types of fallacies not listed below. Write an example of each.

Logical Fallacies

Though there are different kinds of arguments, any argument can be seen as a series of statements, called premises, presented to establish the truth or probability of another statement, called the argument's conclusion. There are many logical fallacies that appear to prove the truth of the conclusion but really do not do so. Examples include:

Circular Reasoning or Begging the Question: A circular argument is one in which the premise or premises assume the truth of the conclusion to "prove" the conclusion.

"Scripture says that God exists. We know that what Scripture tells us is true because it is the Word of God. Therefore God exists."

This is not an argument so much as amplification or a reiteration. Unless the reader already agrees that God exists, the premises give the reader no new reason to believe that God exists.

Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum): This logical fallacy involves using a threat or a cause for fear, rather than a reason for belief, as "support" for the truth of the conclusion.

"If you insist on publishing your latest scientific findings we will lose our government funding. Your findings must be incorrect."

Appeal to Popular Opinion or Conduct (Argumentum ad Populum): This mistake is made when a person assumes that a belief must be correct or a type of conduct appropriate because it is popular or common.

"CrummyCola is the most popular soft drink in the world. CrummyCola must be good for you!"

"Everybody tells lies once in a while. Lying can't be wrong."

Personal Attack (Argumentum ad Hominem): This logical fallacy takes advantage of the mistake of assuming that because the person advancing a position has or had some character flaw or defect, that person's position must itself be wrong.

"Thomas Jefferson owned slaves. We should not take seriously a single one of Jefferson's political beliefs."

"Ulysses S. Grant was an alcoholic. He must have been a terrible general."

Appeal to Pity: With this fallacy, rather than giving reasons why the reader should accept the truth of the conclusion, the person merely appeals to the reader's emotions.

"Giving money to Charity X is the best way to help end poverty. Did you see those sad pictures of starving children in Charity X's new commercial?"

Hasty Generalization: This fallacy is simply a matter of moving from a specific instance to a general claim without due reason. The mistake here is to assume that any sample is a representative sample.

"I like black-and-white movies better than color movies. My friends agree. Therefore, black-and-white movies are more popular than color movies."

"That cabdriver overcharged me. Cabdrivers are such thieves."

False Dilemma: The mistake here is to divide a subject into two antithetical components and to exclude any cases that might land in the middle. This is sometimes called thinking in black and white — ignoring or forgetting the gray areas.

"America. Love it or leave it."

"Either you support the President or you don't."

Complex Question: This is a question to which any response would be incriminating.

"Do you still drink before class?"

False Analogy: This fallacy involves drawing an improbable conclusion about one thing based on a correct conclusion about something unrelated or improperly related. The mistake occurs when one imagines an equation or direct similarity between two different things.

"You can't make an omelette without breaking eggs. Sometimes it's necessary to mistreat a student for the good of the whole class."